MEDIEVAL HISTORY
Emperors: JUSTINIAN II (RHINOTMETUS), 685-695; LEONTIUS, 695-698; TIBERIUS
III (APSIMAR), 698-705
IT is recorded that during the long illness of Pope Conon, Pascal, archdeacon
of the Roman Church, intrigued with the exarch John Plato,
to whom he promised a large sum of money if he would secure
his election as pope. Plato agreed, but no sooner was
Pope Conon dead than the party who had previously put
forward the priest Theodore now determined to secure his
election. Strife raged between the rival factions until
a third party brought forward a new candidate, who soon
received the support of the clergy and people.
In this pontificate Caedwalla, King of the West Saxons, quitted his crown
for the sake of our Lord and His heavenly kingdom, and
set out for Rome, being desirous to obtain the peculiar
honor of being baptized in the Church of the Blessed Apostles.
There he was baptized on Easter Day 689 by Pope Sergius.
And being still in his white garments he fell sick and
departed this life to dwell for ever with the blessed
in heaven.
The most important event of this pontificate was the assembling of a council,
known as the Quinsextan, by the Emperor Justinian II,
at Constantinople. Justinian, finding that the fifth and
sixth General Councils had dealt only with points of dogma,
determined to assemble a supplementary council to deal
with points of discipline. This council, which derived
its name from the two previous councils, met in 692, and
was attended by two hundred and eleven Eastern bishops.
Pope Sergius added to the canon of the Mass the "Agnus Dei,"
which is said thrice at the breaking of the Host. He also
endowed and decorated the church of Sta. Susanna in the
Quirinal, of which he had been priest, and also repaired
the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul. He is recorded
to have discovered in a secret corner in the sacristy
of St. Peter a silver casket, containing a portion of
the true cross, beautifully jewelled. This relic was afterwards
carefully preserved in the Lateran. While searching in
the sacristy Sergius also found the body of Pope Leo the
Great, which he caused to be transferred to a magnificent
tomb within the basilica. The inscription which Sergius
caused to be placed on the tomb is given by Duchesne.
JOHN VI, A.D. 701-705
Emperor: TIBERIUS III (APSIMAR), 698-705
JOHN, a Greek, the son of Petronius, was elected Bishop of Rome on 30th
October 701. During his pontificate, Wilfrid, who had
been again expelled from his see of York, visited Rome
for the third time to make his appeal to the Pope. In
704 Pope John VI assembled a synod in Rome, which held
no less than seventy sessions, during which the dispute
between Wilfrid and Bertwald, Archbishop of Canterbury,
was carefully considered. The assembled bishops learned
with surprise that the venerable prelate before them,
who was now seventy years of age, was the same Wilfrid
who had visited Rome in the time of Pope Agatho. They
acquitted him unanimously of the charges brought against
him, and he returned to England with letters from the
Pope in his favour addressed to Ethelred King of Murcia,
Aldfrid, King of Northumbria, and Bertwald, Archbishop
of York. The Pope ordered Bertwald to assemble a synod
of English bishops to examine the case of Wilfrid. This
synod met in the following year (705), and, in accordance
with the decision at which it arrived, Wilfrid's monasteries
of Hexham and Ripon were restored to him, and also the
see of Hexham. He died in peace four years later (709).
Theophylact, the exarch of Ravenna, arrived in Rome during this pontificate,
and although the reason of his coming seems uncertain,
the people of Rome were persuaded that it portended evil
to the Pope. Troops of the local militias therefore advanced
to Rome, and encamped in the vicinity. Pope John VI, anxious
to avoid bloodshed, assured them that Theophylact had
no evil intentions. They, however, refused to disband
until certain infamous persons, who had intrigued with
the exarch to plunder some of the wealthy Roman citizens,
had been delivered up and punished by a heavy fine.
JOHN VII, A.D. 705-707
Emperor: JUSTINIAN II (RHINOTMETUS), restored 705-711
JOHN, a Greek, the son of Plato, of a wealthy and distinguished family,
was consecrated Bishop of Rome on 1st March 705. Previous
to his election John had been one of the rectors of the
Papal patrimony in Rome, and while holding this office
had caused a memorial to be erected to his parents, Plato
and Blatta, in the church of St. Anastasia in Rome. Judging
from the accounts given of this memorial and its inscription,
we may infer that he was an affectionate and dutiful son.
Friendly relations with the Lombards were re-established during this pontificate,
and John VII obtained from the Lombard King Aribert the
province of the Church known as the Cottian Alps, which
had been seized by his predecessors. The deed of restoration,
written in letters of gold, was sent to Rome. The "Liber
Pontiticalis" gives an account of the work undertaken
by this Pope in decorating and restoring the Roman churches.
He ornamented various churches with mosaics, among which
were several portraits of himself, and made a golden chalice,
ornamented with precious stones, weighing twenty pounds.
SISINNIUS, A.D. 708
Emperor: JUSTINIAN II (RHINOTMETUS)), restored 705-751
SISINNIUS, a Syrian, the son of John, was consecrated Bishop of Rome on
Sunday, 15th January 708. He had long been so grievously
afflicted with gout that he had lost the use of his hands,
and was unable to feed himself. He nevertheless showed
much solicitude for the people of Rome. He ordered time
to be prepared for the restoration of the city walls.
But a pontificate which opened with promise was destined
to be of short duration. After occupying the Roman see
for twenty days, Sisinnius was removed by sudden death,
and was buried in St. Peter's on 7th February 708.
CONSTANTINE A.D. 708-715
Emperors: JUSTINIAN II (RHINOTMETUS)) restored 705-751; PILILIPPICUS, 711.713;
ANASTASIUS II, 713-715
THE fact that Pope Constantine, like his predecessor, Sisinnius, was a
Syrian, and the son of John has led Father Mann to infer
that the two prelates may have been brothers. Constantine,
who is described as the mildest of men, was consecrated
on 25th March 708. In his time there was a great famine,
which lasted three years, and this was followed by a season
of remarkable plenty.
The Emperor Justinian, who had taken vengeance on his enemies in the East,
now proceeded to punish those who had acknowledged the
authority of the usurpers in the West. Troops were sent
to occupy Ravenna, and the leading men of the city, including
Archbishop Felix, were sent as prisoners to Constantinople.
While the others were put to death, Felix was spared,
but he was deprived of his eyes and exiled to the Crimea.
Some writers suppose that in thus treating Felix, the
Emperor had acted at the Pope's instigation, or with a
view to winning his favour in order that he might induce
him to sign the decrees of the Quinsextan Council. These
decrees having now been rejected by three successive popes,
Justinian II summoned Constantine to Constantinople, that
he might there formally declare his submission to the
canons.
Soon after the return of Constantine to Rome the Emperor Justinian II was
assassinated, and Philippicus, a usurper, assumed the
imperial purple. By an attempt to restore Monothelitism,
Philippicus soon put himself in conflict with Rome. So
indignant were the Pope and the Roman people that they
refused to pray for him in the canon of the mass, or to
permit his name to appear on their coins and charters.
A letter sent by Philippicus to the Pope was condemned
in a synod of the Roman clergy.
During this pontificate Coenred, King of the Mercians, and Offa, a youth
of great beauty, heir to the kingdom of the East Saxons,
quitted their kingdoms and went to Rome, where they embraced
the monastic life and received the tonsure. Egwin, Bishop
of Worcester, accompanied these princes to Rome, and received
from Pope Constantine certain privileges for his monastery
at Evesham. Benedict, the saintly Archbishop of Milan,
also visited Rome during this pontificate to consult with
the Pope concerning his jurisdiction over the see of Spoleto.
It was agreed that this see should be henceforth under
the immediate jurisdiction of Rome.
GREGORY II, A.D. 715-731
Emperors: THEDOSIUS III, 716-717; LEO III, the Isaurian, 717-741
THE second Gregory, a Roman, the son of Marcellus, consecrated supreme
pontiff on 19th May 715, was destined to become the most
prominent figure in papal history since the days of his
illustrious predecessor Gregory the Great. He had been
trained as a youth in the "Schola Cantorum",
and under Pope Sergius I had been entrusted, while a deacon,
with the care of the papal library. He accompanied Pope
Constantine to Constantinople, and proved an able controversialist
in the disputes with the Emperor Justinian II. The "Liber
Pontificalis" describes him as a prelate of unblamable
life, eloquent, learned in the Holy Scriptures, and of
resolute will.
A young West Saxon monk named Winifred, better known as Boniface, the name
under which he was afterwards consecrated bishop, began
his labours in Germany during this pontificate. He twice
visited Rome, and received much kindly encouragement from
Gregory II.
In 717 Leo III, the Isaurian, who had risen from the ranks of the people
to be general of the imperial army, usurped the imperial
throne. He was the first to check the alarming advances
of the Mohammedans, who at the beginning of his reign
began a second siege of Constantinople, which lasted for
thirteen months (717-718). With the help of an army of
Bulgarians Leo at length forced the besiegers to retreat
with severe loss.
Liutprand, King of the Lombards, taking advantage of these dissensions,
marched with a large force to Ravenna, and by persuading
the inhabitants that he was an ardent venerator of images,
induced them to surrender the city to him. Although some
writers have accused Pope Gregory II of fanning the revolt,
there is no evidence that this was the case. At his entreaty
the Venetians hastened to the help of the exarch, and
Ravenna was retaken from the Lombards. Shortly after this
the exarch Scholasticus was accused of intriguing with
the Pope, and was superseded by a new exarch named Paul.
It was rumoured that Paul was about to proceed to Rome
to seize the Pope, and there were risings in Gregory's
defence in many parts of Italy.
Two letters are extant written by Pope Gregory II to the Emperor Leo condemning
him in the boldest and most contemptuous tone for his
iconoclasm. Although the authenticity of these letters
has been doubted, the majority of historians look on them
as genuine. In the first and longer of the two epistles
the Pope enters at great length into the question of the
Mosaic interdiction of idolatry, and states that the prohibition
extended only to images of animals and other creatures,
set apart by the heathen for worship, and not to sacred
images, as is proved by examples of the Ark of the Covenant,
the cherubim, etc. He also shows that images and pictures
are often of great efficacy in converting the heathen.
In the course of his argument Gregory II puts a most extraordinary
interpretation on certain parts of Old and New Testament
history.
GREGORY III, A.D. 731-741
Emperor: LEO III the Isaurian, 717-741
GREGORY, the third pontiff of that name, a Syrian, the son of John, was
consecrated on 18th March 731. It is recorded that the
people, moved by the Holy Ghost, seized him as he was
assisting at the obsequies of his predecessor and placed
him by force on the pontifical throne. Gregory III was
the last pope whose consecration had to await the sanction
of the exarch of Ravenna.
During this pontificate the missionary Boniface continued his labours in
Germany with singular success. He had been appointed an
archbishop and papal legate in Germany, and about the
year 738 visited Rome for the third time, when he was
received with much honour by the Pope. Four letters are
extant, written by Gregory III to different persons in
Germany, commending Boniface. In 735 Pope Gregory sent
the pallium to Eadbert, cousin of Coelwulf, King of Northumbria,
the first Archbishop of York since the days of Paulinus.
It is also recorded that Gregory sent the pallium to two
Archbishops of Canterbury - Tatwine, elected in 731, and
Notelin, who succeeded him in 736.
During the first eight years of this pontificate peace was maintained with
the Lombards. At the end of that time fresh trouble arose
through the Dukes of Spoleto and Benevento, who in the
time of Gregory II had rebelled against the Lombard king.
Some writers state that Pope Gregory had intrigued with
these Dukes against Liutprand. Defeated by the latter
they took refuge in Rome, under the Pope's protection.
Pope Gregory III now addressed a letter to this powerful Christian potentate,
begging for his help against the Lombards. With this letter
he sent certain valuable gifts, including the keys of
St. Peter's, and filings from what were supposed to be
the Apostle's chains. Although Charles received this embassy
respectfully, he seems to have remained unmoved by the
Pope's appeal for help. Gregory then addressed to him
a most pathetic letter, in which he declares that his
tears are falling day and night for the devastation of
the states of the Church, and draws a lamentable picture
of the misery caused by the Lombard invasions. He states
that Liutprand had made war on the Dukes of Spoleto and
Benevento, because they had refused to join in plundering
the states of the Church. Gregory also assures Charles
Martel that, though the Lombards also might seek to treat
with him, they were constantly reviling him behind his
back. According to some accounts this letter had no effect,
and it was not until the Pope sent an embassy in the name
of the Roman people offering Charles, in return for his
protection, the title of Consul of Rome, that he consented
to treat with Gregory. Charles Martel then sent as his
ambassadors to Rome Grimon, Abbot of Corbie, and Sigebert
a monk of St. Denis.
The Duchy of Rome included the entire district right and left of the Tiber,
Roman Tuscany, and the Campagna. The first mention of
an imperial Duke of Rome occurs in 751. After the conquest
of the Western Empire by the Franks, the Roman duchy was
administered by the popes.
The death of Charles Martel on 22nd October of this same year (745) and
of Pope Gregory III on 27th November, prevented further
treaty. Pope Gregory was buried in St. Peter's on 29th
November. The "Liber Pontificalis" describes
the third Gregory as a man of mild disposition, prudent,
learned in the Holy Scriptures, knowing all the Psalms
by heart, and well versed in the Greek and Latin languages.
He was the friend of monks and nuns, a protector of widows
and orphans, and a lover of poverty and the poor.
ZACHARY, A.D. 741-752
Emperors: CONSTANTINE V (COPRONYMUS), 741-775 (ARTAVASDAS,usurper)
ZACHARY, a Greek, the son of Polychronius, was consecrated Bishop of Rome
on 3rd December 741. The "Liber Pontificalis"
records him to have been slow to anger, and quick to forgive,
returning good for evil, mild, a lover of the clergy and
of all the Roman people. Judging from the part he played
during his eventful pontificate Pope Zachary must have
been not only an able statesman, but a prelate of unusually
winning and attractive personality. One of his first acts
after his consecration was to send legates with letters
and a confession of orthodoxy to Constantinople, addressed
to the Emperor Constantine V, the son and successor of
Leo III, and to the patriarch. In his letter to the Emperor,
Zachary urged him to restore the holy images to the churches,
in the East.
In 743 a synod of forty bishops, twenty-two priests, and fifteen deacons,
assembled in Rome, and twenty-two decrees respecting matters
of ecclesiastical discipline were passed. Anathemas were
also pronounced against those convicted of selling Christian
slaves to the Jews. By order of the Pope a Council was
also held in England at a place called Cloveshoe, the
identity of which is uncertain, and certain reformatory
decrees passed.
The death of Charles Martel had left Italy at the mercy of the Lombards.
At the commencement of his pontificate Pope Zachary sent
an embassy to the Lombard king, Liutprand, but the latter
refused to treat with the Pope until he had promised to
abandon the cause of the rebellious Duke of Spoleto. To
this Zachary agreed, and received a promise that the four
cities seized by the Lombards during the previous pontificate
would be restored. The Duke of Spoleto was then driven
from his duchy, and retired to a monastery, but Liutprand
failed to keep his promise to the Pope, retaining not
only the four cities, but occupying all the midland regions
of Italy. Pope Zachary then decided to act as his own
ambassador, and to try the effect of a personal interview
with the Lombard king.
Accompanied by his attendant bishops, he set out for the Lombard camp near
Terni, Liutprand, who seems to have been peculiarly susceptible
to religious influences, received the Pope with every
mark of respect. In the interview which followed the King
promised not only to restore the four cities, but also
all the estates of the church in the Sabine country, which
the Lombards had held for thirty years, the towns of Narni,
Osimo, Ancona, and others in the district of Sutri, to
release unransomed all the Roman prisoners taken in war,
and to conclude a peace of twenty years with the Duchy
of Rome.
Liutprand seems to have been anxious to avoid an interview with the Pope,
but on hearing that it was inevitable he sent some of
the Lombard nobles to meet His Holiness, and to escort
him to Pavia. The first few days after his arrival were
spent in religious ceremonies, and the Feast of St. Peter
falling at this time (29th June), the King attended mass
with his usual devotion. At length the interview took
place, and Pope Zachary after much opposition succeeded
in persuading the King to surrender the territory which
he had seized round Ravenna, as well as the greater part
of the district of Cesena. The remaining part was to remain
in his hands until 1st June of the following year. Once
more Pope Zachary returned triumphant to Rome, and a solemn
service of thanksgiving was held for his success.
In the following January (744), King Liutprand died, and was succeeded
by his nephew Hildeprand, who only reigned for seven months.
Rachis, Duke of Friuli, was then raised to the Lombard
throne, and shortly after his accession consented to renew
the peace of twenty years with the Pope. To this the Lombard
nobles objected, however, and plotted against Rachis with
his brother Astulf.
Pope Zachary improved the cultivation of the Campagna, and established
five farms there, in which he induced families to settle.
He also practically rebuilt the Lateran Palace. While
the repairs were being carried out a box was discovered
containing the head of St. George. This was conveyed with
great solemnity to the church of S. Giorgio in Velabro,
where it was deposited.
In 751 there arrived in Rome from Pepin the Frank, Mayor of the Palace,
an embassy consisting of Burchard, Bishop of Würtzburg
and Fulrad the King's chaplain. Their orders were to inquire
of the Pope whether he did not consider that he who had
the kingly power ought also to have the name of king.
The Pope replied that such was indeed his opinion, and
he is said to have forthwith ordered by his apostolic
authority that Pepin should be elected King of the Franks.
It is probable that Pepin wished to have the Pope's sanction
for his usurpation, but it would doubtless have been carried
out even if the Pope had refused his consent.
STEPHEN II, A.D. 752
Emperor: CONSTANTINE V (COPRONYMUS), 741-775
IN March 752, Stephen, a presbyter, was chosen to succeed Pope Zachary
in the Roman see, and was conducted in state to the Lateran
Palace. But on arising from sleep on the third day after
his election, he suddenly lost speech and consciousness,
apparently from a stroke of apoplexy. On the day following
he died.
STEPHEN (II) III, A.D. 752-757
Emperor: CONSTANTINE V (COPRONYMUS), 741-775
ALMOST immediately after the sudden death of his predecessor, Stephen,
a Roman, the son of Constantine, was unanimously elected
Pope in the Church of Sta. Maria Maggiore, and was conducted
to the Lateran Palace. His consecration took place on
26th March 752, the Roman see having been vacant for twelve
days. Stephen and his younger brother Paul, who afterwards
succeeded him in the Roman see, had been left orphans
at an early age, had been educated in the Lateran Palace
under the second and third Gregories, and by Pope Zachary
had been ordained deacons together. The "Liber Pontificalis"
describes Stephen as a ready helper of the poor, the friend
of widows and orphans, and an earnest preacher of God's
word.
Probably no period of papal history offers more difficulty to the student
than that of the second half of the eighth century. The
conflicting accounts of the parts played by the Roman
pontiffs as given in the Roman and Frankish annals render
it impossible to judge positively concerning the events
related.
Meantime John, an ambassador from the Emperor, arrived in Rome with letters
both to Astulf and to the Pope. The former was urged to
cease from his hostilities in the exarchate, while the
latter was requested to use his influence with the Lombard
king to secure peace. But Astulf, who was a man of very
different character from his predecessor Liutprand, refused
to be influenced either by the Pope or by the imperial
ambassador. He, however, consented to send an ambassador
to the Emperor. John on his return to Constantinople,
was the bearer of a letter from the Pope to Constantine,
in which Stephen urges the Emperor to come with an army
to the help of his subjects in Italy. From this letter
it would appear that friendly relations had been resumed
between the Emperor and the Roman see. But the Emperor,
harassed by the Bulgarians and Saracens, was not in a
position to send help to Italy.
Pope Stephen meantime encouraged the Roman people by holding solemn processions
and daily litanies. On one occasion he is said to have
proceeded with bare feet, accompanied by the people with
ashes on their heads, to the church of Sta. Maria Maggiore,
the cross, with a copy of the treaty violated by Astulf,
being borne on his shoulders.
Although the Pope was in weak health, he set out for Pavia on 14th October
753, amidst the tears and remonstrances of the Roman people.
He was accompanied by the imperial and the Frankish ambassadors.
Encouraged by the fair weather with which they met on
their journey, they arrived in safety at the Lombard camp.
The imperial ambassador presented his letters, and Pope
Stephen implored Astulf to "restore the Lord's sheep
to their rightful owner". But the Lombard king was
not to be moved, and the embassy failed entirely in its
object. On learning that the Pope intended to proceed
to the court of Pepin, Astulf is said to have ground his
teeth like a lion, although he seems to have given Stephen
permission to depart peacefully. On 15th November the
Pope and his companions set out for France, and proceeded
by rapid marches in spite of the advance of winter. The
crossing of the Alps was effected only with great difficulty,
the Pope suffering much hardship and danger from the floods
and ice-clad precipices. They at length reached the monastery
of St. Maurice, in the valley of the Rhone. There the
Pope was met by messengers sent by Pepin, to escort His
Holiness to the King's palace at Pontyon, near Langres.
As the cavalcade advanced they were met by the Queen Bertrada,
with the young princes Charles and Carloman, and at a
distance of three miles from the palace by the King himself.
According to the Roman records, Pepin dismounted from
his horse, prostrated himself on the earth, and afterwards
walked by the side of the Pope's palfrey. The Frankish
chronicles, however, represent the Pope as the suppliant,
stating that he threw himself along with his clergy at
the King's feet, and refused to rise until Pepin had promised
with a solemn oath his aid against the Lombards. Shortly
afterwards the court set out for Paris, it having been
arranged that Pope Stephen would repose during the winter
in the Abbey of St. Denis. There he became so seriously
ill that his restoration to health was looked upon as
a miracle, granted through the prayers of St. Denis, St.
Peter, and St. Paul, who appeared to him in a vision.
After his recovery a solemn service was held in the church
of St. Denis, when Pope Stephen anointed Pepin and his
two sons, Kings of the Franks, and bestowed on Pepin the
title of Patrician of Rome.
Much controversy has raged round the subject of Pope Stephen's visit to
Gaul. Certain writers, including Freeman, contend that
the Pope went to Gaul as the imperial ambassador, and
that the title of Patrician could only have been bestowed
on Pepin with the authority of the reigning emperor. It
seemed natural that the Emperor should charge the King
of the Franks with the role of defender of Rome, which
he himself could not fulfill effectively: The Rev. H.
K. Mann combats this view, for which he thinks there is
little evidence, as it tends to minimize the authority
of the Pope. Gregorovius, like Gibbon, attributes many
of the acts of Pope Stephen while in Gaul to the authority
given him by the Roman people, but holds that the Patrician
was undoubtedly the representative of the Emperor. Gibbon
states that after the loss of the exarchate the Roman
senate and people invested Charles Martel and his posterity
with the title of Patrician or Protector of Rome. The
Patriciate was not a mere title, but carried with it both
rights and duties, though not very definitely defined.
It is probable that the unction of Pepin and his sons
by Pope Stephen was performed at the urgent desire of
the King, and certainly without any authority from the
Emperor. Nor was the Emperor aware until much later of
the oath sworn by Pepin to the Pope, that he would hand
over the territory conquered from the Lombards to the
Roman see. Certain French writers hold the view that Pepin
was only consecrated once, namely, by Pope Stephen. The
statement that he was previously consecrated during the
pontificate of Zachary may have been made by those who
held that he could be lawful king only by the authority
of the Pope, and who therefore found themselves under
the necessity of going further back than the time of Pope
Stephen. Eginhard, in his life of Charlemagne, mentions
only one consecration of Pepin, that by Pope Stephen.
Having assembled a council of his nobles, Pepin informed them of his intention
of setting out for Italy in fulfillment of his promise
to the Pope. At this juncture there arrived in France
no less a personage than Carloman, elder brother of Pepin,
who had retired to the monastery of Monte Cassino six
years previously. Carloman had been sent by the abbot
of his monastery, at the request of Astulf, to dissuade
his brother from attempting an invasion of the Lombard
territory. But Carloman pleaded in vain, and Pepin, after
consultation with the Pope, decided to prevent the return
of the monk to Italy. He was accordingly sent to a monastery
in Vienne, where he soon afterwards died.
On 1st January 756, Astulf laid siege to Rome. Pope Stephen then dispatched
to Pepin a second letter by a messenger who was obliged
to travel by sea, the way by land being closed by the
besiegers. In this he states that Astulf had robbed the
churches, defiled the altars, slain the priests, and had
threatened to batter down the walls of Rome if the Pope
were not delivered into his hands. He had also dug up
many bodies of the saints, which he coveted as relics,
and had carried them away. The Pope represents himself
as falling at Pepin's feet, and conjuring him with tears
in the name of God, His Holy Mother, and the Blessed Apostles,
to come to the rescue of the Apostolic see.
Meantime an imperial embassy arrived in Italy to request Pepin to hand
over the conquered territory to the Emperor, and at the
same time offering him bribes. Pepin replied that he had
undertaken this expedition not for his own advantage, but for the honour
of the Blessed Peter and the Roman Church, and that it
was his intention to bestow the conquered territory on
the Pope. The district handed over to the Pope by Pepin
comprehended Ravenna, Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Cesena, Sinigaglia,
Iesi, Forlimpopoli, Forli with the Castle Sussibio, Montefeltro,
Acerra, Monte di Lucano, Serra, San Marino, Bobbio, Urbino,
Cagli, Luciolo, Gubbio, Comachio, and Narni.
In 754 the Emperor Constantine V had assembled a council in Constantinople,
at which the veneration of images or so-called image-worship
was condemned. Although the Emperor claimed that this
council was ecumenical, it was not attended by the patriarchs
of Jerusalem, Antioch, or Alexandria, and was repudiated
by the Pope. In 755 Boniface of Mentz ended his glorious
career, martyred by the Frisians, to whom he had gone
as a simple missionary after resigning his see. Some writers
declare that this wonderful missionary was one of the
chief instruments in bringing about the union between
Rome and the Franks.
PAUL I, A.D. 757-767
Emperor: CONSTANTINE V (COPRONYMUS), 741-775
IT is recorded that while Pope Stephen III lay on his death-bed, a certain
faction in Rome intrigued to elect as his successor the
Archdeacon Theophylact, instead of Paul, brother of Stephen,
who had been destined for the papal chair. Paul remained
in close attendance on his dying brother, and took no
interest in the disputes. However, on the death of Stephen,
Paul received the support of the nobility, clergy, and
magistrates, and was duly elected, after a vacancy of
one month and five days caused by the contentions.
Desiderius, the Lombard king, still retained possession of some of the
towns which, by treaty with Pepin, Astulf had promised
to cede to Pope Stephen III. The Dukes of Spoleto and
Benevento had placed themselves under the protection of
King Pepin, and in 758 Desiderius took up arms against
them. After ravaging several cities in the exarchate,
he seized and imprisoned the Duke of Spoleto, and forced
the Duke of Benevento to take refuge in Otranto, while
another was set up in his duchy. The Lombard king then
proceeded to Naples, which was still held by the imperial
officials and attempted to negotiate an alliance with
the Emperor. On his way back he visited Rome and playing
a double part made friendly overtures to the Pope. On
Paul's demanding the cession of the cities still in his
power, Desiderius replied by demanding that the hostages
given by Astulf to the King of the Franks should first
be restored. The Pope wrote to Pepin informing him of
the proceedings of Desiderius. It was only gradually that
the Lombard king, probably influenced by fear of another
Frankish invasion, was induced to submit to the fulfillment
of the treaty. After this more amicable relations seem
for a time to have existed between the Lombards and the
Roman see, and we find the Pope writing to Pepin entreating
him to urge Desiderius to unite with him against the Emperor.
The determination of the Emperor to recover his rights
in Italy, and to abolish so-called image worship, or veneration
of images, caused considerable apprehension to Pope Paul
at this time.
Many adulatory letters from Paul to King Pepin are preserved in the Codex
Carolinus. He repeatedly expresses his deep obligations
to the Franks, his anxiety being evidently very great
to maintain friendly relations with Pepin. Along with
his letters the Pope sent to Pepin at different times
gifts of a sword and belt set with gems, a cloak embroidered
with peacocks, three jacinth rings for himself and his
sons, and an organ, an instrument supposed to have been
till then unknown in France. He also sent, at the King's
request, many relics of the saints, including, it is said,
the bodies of the three martyrs SS. Gorgonius, Nabor,
and Nazarius.
The "Liber Pontificalis" gives a long account of the work of
Paul in beautifying and restoring many Roman churches,
where he caused bones of the martyrs to be placed. He
built a chapel (now destroyed) dedicated to SS. Peter
and Paul, on the Via Sacra, adjoining the Basilica of
Constantine, and also an oratory in St. Peter's in honour
of our Lady, placing there a silver image of her. There
he also made himself a sepulchre. He established several
monasteries for Greek monks, who had fled from the iconoclastic
persecution in the East, and converted his paternal mansion
into a monastery.
A letter is extant, written by Paul to Egbert, King of Northumbria, brother
of Eadbert, Archbishop of York, in which the Pope censures
the King for making grants of English monasteries to his
nobles. This same Egbert afterwards renounced his crown
and ended his days in a monastery.
STEPHEN (III) IV, A.D. 768-772
Emperor: CONSTANTINE V (COPRONYMUS), 741-775
WHILE Pope Paul I lay on his death-bed in the monastery of St. Paul without
the Walls, tumultuous scenes took place in Rome. The large
estates now in the power of the Roman see rendered its
possession an object to be coveted by the nobility. Toto,
Duke of Nepi, the owner of estates in Tuscany and of a
palace in Rome, entered the city with his two brothers,
at the head of an armed force. His brother Constantine,
a layman, was hastily ordained, forced through the lower
ecclesiastical grades, and elected Bishop of Rome, a few
days before the death of Paul I, which took place on 28th
June 767. Constantine held possession of the Roman see
for fifteen months, which period is looked upon as a vacancy
in the annals of the Roman Church. The antipope wrote
two letters to the King of the Franks, in which he attempted
to ingratiate himself with that prince, but Pepin vouchsafed
no reply.
Christopher, the chief Primicerius of the Roman notaries, and his son Sergius,
who held the office of treasurer of the Roman Church,
at length determined to get rid of the usurper. Pretending
that they desired to enter a northern monastery, they
set out for Lombardy, where, with the assistance of the
Duke of Spoleto, they effected an alliance with Desiderius,
the Lombard king. The latter provided Lombard troops with
which Sergius returned to Rome. On hearing of their approach,
Duke Toto, along with another brother, named Passivus,
went to the gates to oppose their entrance. An uproar
took place, during which Toto was slain. Passivus fled
to the Lateran Palace to defend his brother Constantine.
Along with Theodore, a bishop, the brothers took refuge
in the oratory of St. Caesarius, where they remained for
several hours, before they were discovered, dragged out,
and thrown into prison.
In the midst of the confusion which reigned, Waldipert, a presbyter, who
had accompanied Sergius from Lombardy, assembled the Lombard
faction in Rome, and proceeding to the monastery of St.
Vitus, on the Esquiline, brought from thence a priest
named Philip, and elected him Pope. He was conducted through
the streets, and installed in the Lateran Palace, where
a bishop was persuaded to consecrate him, and the usual
banquet was held in his honour. Meantime, on the arrival
in Rome of Christopher, the Primicerius, whose return
from Lombardy had been delayed, the party of Philip melted
away, and the latter was easily persuaded to resign his
claims and return to his monastery.
On the following day, 1st August 768, Christopher assembled the clergy
and people at a place in the Roman Forum known as the
Tribus Fatis, where a statue of the three Fates formerly
stood. There Stephen, a Sicilian, son of Olivus, a Benedictine
monk, but apparently attached as a priest to the church
of Sta. Cecilia in Trastevere, was unanimously chosen
Bishop of Rome. His consecration took place a few days
later, 7th August 768. Shameful vengeance was taken by
his adherents on those who had favoured the antipopes;
and their possessions were plundered and confiscated.
Bishop Theodore was deprived of his eyes and tongue, and
imprisoned in a monastery, where he was left to die of
hunger and thirst. Waldipert was mutilated in the same
manner, and soon afterwards died. Passivus was also deprived
of his eyes, and sent to a monastery. The same fate requited
his brother Constantine, after he had been led ignominiously
through the streets on horseback, seated on a woman's
saddle, with weights attached to his feet. Although many
of these acts were attributed to the excited populace,
the clergy seem not to have been exempt from some share
in them.
Soon after his consecration Stephen dispatched legates to Pepin to inform
the Frankish king of his accession, and to invite him
to send bishops from Gaul to a Roman synod shortly to
be held. But when the legates arrived at the court of
the Franks they found that King Pepin was dead. He had
died on 24th September 768, leaving his kingdom to be
divided between his sons Charles and Carloman, who already
bore the title of Patricians of Rome. They readily complied
with the Pope's request, and dispatched twelve bishops
to Rome.
In August 769 Pope Stephen presided over a Lateran synod of forty-nine
bishops. The chief business of this assembly was the condemnation
of Constantine the antipope, and the establishment of
new regulations for future papal elections. The blind
Constantine appeared before this assembly and pleaded
that his offence was not unprecedented, and cited the
case of certain archbishops of Ravenna and Naples, who
had been promoted directly from being laymen to the episcopate.
This reply enraged the clergy, and Constantine was driven
from the assembly with blows. Laws were passed forbidding
anyone to be elected to the Roman see who had not previously
passed through the lower clerical orders, and prohibiting
the laity, save by acclamation, to take part in future
papal elections.
A conspiracy was soon afterwards formed under the leadership of the Lombard
king, Desiderius, against Christopher and his son Sergius,
who were now the most influential men in Rome. Some writers
state that Pope Stephen had intrigued with Desiderius
to betray Christopher and his son, who were accused of
undermining the papal influence. There is, however, no
clear evidence that the Pope had any share in the conspiracy,
for he retired within the Vatican, and it was rumoured
that he would be kept a prisoner until Christopher and
Sergius were delivered up. They were accordingly seized
and deprived of their eyes and tongue. Christopher died
soon afterwards, but Sergius survived, a wretched captive,
until the end of Stephen's pontificate.
The Frankish kings had been deeply offended by the treatment of Christopher
and Sergius, and refused to make peace with Pope Stephen,
whom Carloman even threatened to dethrone. But the two
brothers were themselves at variance, and were only prevented
from making war on each other through the influence of
their mother, Bertreda.
During this pontificate Bertrada visited Italy to negotiate alliances between
the royal lines of France and Lombardy. It was proposed
that her daughter Gisela should marry Prince Adelchis
of Lombardy, King Charles the Lombard princess Desiderata,
and Carloman another daughter of the Lombard king. These
proposals aroused much opposition on the part of Pope
Stephen, who saw in such alliances great danger to the
papal interests in the north of Italy. Moreover, both
Charles and Carloman were already married.
Pope Stephen addressed a letter to Charles and Carloman in which he stated
that the devil alone could have suggested such an alliance.
He reminded the princes of the beauty of the women of
their own country, adjured them to be faithful to their
own lawful wives, and not to seek to unite the royal house
of the Franks with a despised nation and family of lepers.
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