BOOK II.

REFORMATION IN FRANCE SCOTLAND.

CHAPTER I.

THE REFORMATION MOVEMENT IN FRANCE AND SCOTLAND

1540-60.

The Reformation movement, and the difficulties which it raised in the politics of every kingdom, gave rise to complications in France and Scotland of which Elizabeth took advantage to secure her own position. So long as a religious war did not break out in England itself, Elizabeth could use the difficulties of neighboring States for her own purposes. So long as England remained united enough to make foreign interference difficult, Elizabeth could balance parties, and help insurgents in the kingdoms of her opponents.

In France the conflict of religious opinions threatened to become serious, much more serious than it had been in Germany. Luther's Reformation was conservative in principle. He wished to alter as little as possible of the belief and practice of the old Church. While aiming at the removal of abuses, he was anxious to preserve the old framework. But in France the Reformers were not so much engaged in removing the abuses of the old state of things as in endeavoring to discover for themselves a new system of life, by which each man might realize more entirely his own relationship to God. Hence the German Reformers did not awake such fierce opposition as did the Protestants in France. In Germany the Reformation only demanded a few modifications of the existing political system; in France it called for an entire change of national life. The principles on which French Protestantism was founded had far deeper root in the mind and character of the individual than had the teaching of Luther and Melanchthon. But here, as in all other things, the deeper principles had to meet with the more bitter antagonism.

Protestantism in France had made considerable progress under Francis I, as the king himself, and his sister Margaret, queen of Navarre, were both in favor of some reforms. But when Francis failed in his political undertakings against Charles V, the intolerant spirit of his people was too strong for him to resist. The theologians of the College of Sorbonne, in the University of Paris, declared themselves violently for the old Church, and the popular opinion of the capital was on their side. Francis I, though allied with the Protestant princes of Germany, and with the Turks abroad, was driven to persecute at home. Under Henry II persecution was still more vigorously carried on, and the Protestant teachers were obliged to flee from France. Some of the chief of them took refuge at Geneva, a city in the dominions of the Duke of Savoy, among a French-speaking people.

Geneva was in a state of political confusion. Its municipality claimed the right to regulate its internal affairs; but its bishop wished to assert his power over it, and the Duke of Savoy also desired t0 bring it int0 subjection. The citizens were opposed to the duke and bishop, and the ideas of the Reformers gave them a ground on which to rest their opposition. Protestantism first came to Geneva through the German-speaking towns of the Swiss confederates, where Luther’s opinions had largely spread. But the French refugees were more in accordance with the spirit of the people, and Geneva became the centre of French Protestantism. Jean Chauvin, better known as John Calvin, a native of Picardy, acquired a great influence over the affairs of the city. Once he was driven away by his enemies, but in 1541 he returned, and from that time Geneva was the centre of his teaching. Calvinism aimed at completely establishing the connection of man with God by means of its doctrine of predestination, according to which the Church consisted solely of those who had been from the beginning predestined to salvation. Starting from this conception, Calvin organized the most rigorous church discipline, and enforced it by means of the government of the city. The greatest moral strictness was exacted, and Geneva, entirely under Calvin’s influence, became a model for all Protestant States.

The example of Geneva naturally told most powerfully upon France. The Protestants increased Calvinism in numbers in spite of the persecutions, and in France the wretched condition of the government under Henry II gave them still greater weight. The king abandoned everything to his favorites, who urged on the persecution as a means of gaining money for themselves. Ecclesiastical offices were given away as rewards for services done to the king, and men who had been pliant courtiers one day were seen officiating as bishops on the next. In this state of things morality was entirely on the side of the Protestants. They grew in numbers, so that in 1558 they were reckoned at 400,000, and each congregation organized itself on the principles which Calvin had laid down at Geneva.

Henry II was alarmed at this spread of Protestantism, and a desire to have his hands more free to attack it is said to have been one of the reasons which made him ready to conclude the peace of Cateau Cambresis with Philip II (April 2, 1559). He published severer edicts against Protestantism, and was suspected of a plan to help the Duke of Savoy to conquer Geneva, when he was accidentally killed at a tournament (July 26, 1559), and a change came over the government of France.

Power of the Guises

Francis II, who succeeded his father, was a boy of the age of sixteen, who, at the very beginning of his reign, gave up all his power to the bitterest of the enemy of the Protestants, Charles Guise, Cardinal of Lorraine. He was one of the six sons of Claude, Duke of Guise, who had been one of the bravest generals of Francis I. These six sons were to play a most important part in French history. All of them were full of vigour and energy, all of them were staunch, we may say fanatical, Catholics, and lost no opportunity of carrying out their convictions. Francis Duke of Guise, the elder brother of the cardinal, had already made himself a name in France by the capture of Calais. James V of Scotland had married the cardinal’s sister, and Mary of Scotland was his niece. It was through her marriage to Francis II that the Cardinal of Lorraine had gained his great influence with the king. He was, moreover, justly popular with the people, a man of commanding presence, great affability, ready eloquence, unblemished moral character, unwearied zeal in discharging the duties of his archbishopric, and a high reputation for sanctity. Now that he had power in his hands, he set three main objects before himself, the suppression of Protestantism, hostility to England, and the establishment of the power of his own family.

Thus it was by the Cardinal’s advice that Francis II and Mary assumed at once the title and arms of England. Mary’s claims were to be asserted against Elizabeth; Protestantism was to be crushed in England as well as in France, and the influence of the Guises was to be supreme in both countries.

Elizabeth knew that Philip would lend no help to carry out such plans as these; but the Pope was likely to combine in their favor all staunch Catholics who were ready to move at the papal command. It was through Scotland that the blow against England would first be struck. Elizabeth’s plan was to avoid it by helping the discontented in France and Scotland alike, so as to employ the cardinal’s energies at home.

We have seen the condition of France. Scotland was equally inflammable on the question of religion, while the power of the crown was much less than in State of France. The Scottish nobles were at the head of powerful clans, and the continual border warfare with England had kept alive their military spirit. The king, on the other hand, had but small revenues, and no army at his command. Hence, to obtain greater power, the Crown had allied itself with the Church, and had been willing to enrich the clergy as a means of diminishing the importance of the nobles. The Scottish Church was wealthy and corrupt, and when Henry VIII of England endeavored to prevail on James V of Scotland to join with him in his reforming plans, the Scottish clergy in alarm bought off the king’s compliance, and stirred him up to the war with England which cost him his life (1542). But the suppression of the monasteries and confiscation of church property in England had wrought a great impression in Scotland, and the clergy felt themselves insecure. Persecution awoke the most bitter passions, and the burning of George Wishart, one of the most popular of the reforming preachers, brought a terrible punishment on the persecutor. Cardinal Beaton, the primate, was murdered in the castle of St Andrews (1546), and for fourteen months the castle was held against the regent. The policy, however of England towards Scotland, and the disastrous battle of Pinkie (1547), compelled the Scots to look to France for help, and so strengthened the Catholic party. French troops were brought in greater numbers to Scotland, and in 1554 the queen-mother, Mary of Lorraine, sister of the Cardinal of Lorraine, was made regent.

The Scots, however, were soon impatient of French influence over them, and disliked the foreigners whom the regent put in power. They felt that though it might be useful for them to play off the French against the English so as to secure their independence, still if they were to be dependent on one or the other, the English were more nearly related to them than the French. On one side was an alliance with France and Catholicism; on the other side an alliance with England and Protestantism.

Here, as in Geneva, national feeling united with religious conviction, and Protestantism became the symbol of antagonism to the French dominion. In 1557 a powerful political party was formed of those who were in favor of ecclesiastical reform. It was a party which came together with different objects. Some were in favor of Protestant doctrines; some hoped for a share of church lands; some wished to raise a party against French influence. But all combined to sign a bond, in accordance with an old Scottish practice, pledging themselves to work together for a common purpose. This bond is known as the First Covenant, and those who signed it agreed to demand that the English Book of Common Prayer be used in the churches, and that Protestant preaching be allowed.

John Knox. 

For a while nothing definite was done; but in 1558 the burning of an old preacher, Walter Mill, at St. Andrews, aroused the Lords of the Congregation, as the signers of the Covenant now called themselves. They presented their demands to the regent, and some time was spent in useless discussion. But the hands of the Reformers were strengthened by Elizabeth’s accession in England, and on May 2, 1559, the leading spirit of the Scottish Reformation, John Knox, returned to Scotland.

Knox had been born near Haddington in the year 1505. He had had a good education, and had taken up Protestantism with the fire and fervor of a severe and stern nature. He was one of those who held the castle of St. Andrews after the murder of Cardinal Beaton, and on its capture had been sent as a prisoner to serve in the French galleys. After nineteen months of suffering, which only intensified the depth and narrowness of his convictions, he succeeded in escaping. For a while he lived in England, under Edward VI, but fled before Mary’s persecution, first to Frankfort, and afterwards to Geneva, where he published a fierce attack upon Mary, called the “Monstrous Regiment of Women”. There he joined Calvin, and learned from him the principles which he afterwards labored to enforce. It was Knox’s influence which turned the Scottish Reformation from following in the steps of the English movement, and impressed upon it the more rigid and severe form which had been thought out by Calvin. Knox came back to Scotland profoundly convinced of the truth of his own convictions, and determined to carry them out at any hazard. He was keen, shrewd, and clear-sighted, a man not likely to put himself or his opinions at the mercy of political contingencies, but determined to use politics for his own purposes. Those who joined him to gain their own ends found that he was more than their match. Utterly fearless, never giving way for an instant, not to be deterred by threats or won over by fair promises, he went upon his own course. He was convinced that to put down popery was his highest duty, and no feelings of sympathy for others, no restraints of decorum, no compassion for human weakness, was allowed to stand in his way. Hard, cold, and austere, yet with a grim humor and a rare power of clear and ready eloquence, he was the terror of those in power and the constant favorite of the people.

Knox's influence was soon felt in the course of affairs. In May 1559 the regent, stirred to action by the Cardinal of Lorraine, summoned the reformed clergy to Stirling. They came, but surrounded by so many followers, that the regent was afraid, and promised that if they would disperse she would proceed no further. They agreed; but scarcely were they gone before Mary caused the preachers to be tried and condemned in their absence. Knox’s anger broke out in a fierce sermon against idolatry, preached at Perth. The people of the town rose and destroyed the images in the churches, and tore down all architectural ornaments which contained sculpture. The example of Perth was followed elsewhere, and the churches of Scotland were soon robbed of their old beauty. From this time we must date the decay of the fine ecclesiastical buildings of Scotland, whose ruins still bear witness to their former splendor. They were not of course destroyed at once; but they were stripped bare and left to molder unheeded. The stern spirit of the Scottish Reformation would not consent to offer the new simple worship, of which men’s consciences approved, in the old buildings which had been profaned by idolatrous rites.

The Lords of the Congregation were now in open rebellion against the regent, and war was on the point of breaking out. It was, however, averted for a time by the mediation of a few moderate men, amongst whom was Lord James Stewart, an illegitimate son of the late king, known in later history as the Earl of Murray. Both parties agreed to lay down their arms, and submit their disputes to a meeting of the Estates of the Realm, while the regent promised not to molest the people of Perth, or garrison the town with French soldiers. She kept the letter only of her promise; for she hired native troops with French money, and proceeded to punish the people of Perth. This perfidy gave strength to the Congregation. They again took up arms, seized Edinburgh, summoned a parliament, and deposed the regent (October 1559).

This was a bold step; but without help from England it could not be maintained. As the regent was strong in French troops, the Congregation must ally withEngland. Elizabeth wished to help them;  but her course was by no means clear. To ally with rebels fighting against their lawful sovereign was a bad example for one in Elizabeth’s position to set. She herself had many enemies abroad who were willing enough to interfere in the affairs of England, and many of her subjects recognized her as queen only by virtue of her legal title, which they would be willing enough to set aside. Elizabeth’s ministers were less cautious than herself; but Cecil’s political wisdom was never allowed to act till Elizabeth had provided for her own position in case of failure. 

At last, in January 1560, a treaty was made at Berwick between Elizabeth and the Duke of Chatelherault, the second person in the Scottish realm. Elizabeth undertook to aid the Scottish lords in expelling the French, but would only aid them so long as they acknowledged their queen.

And now a strange change had come over Scotland The Scots were fighting side by side with the English against their old allies the French. Already their religious feelings had overcome their old national animosities; or rather, religion itself had become a powerful element in their national spirit. The war, however, was for awhile indecisive. The French troops held the fortress of Leith, and, though blockaded by an English fleet, still managed to repulse the attacks of their assailants. It was doubtful whether Elizabeth would be prevailed upon to send troops enough to secure success for the Scottish lords.

a.d. 1560. Troubles in France. 

But meanwhile affairs in France took a direction favorable to the Reformers. The Cardinal of Lorraine had offended the nobles by his exclusion of them from State affairs, and by his endeavors to  secure all the power for his kinsmen. France was deeply in debt, and there were many murmurs against the oppressive taxes which were levied solely to further the family interests of the Guises in securing their hold on Scotland. To these grievances was added the disaffection of the Protestants. The combined result of all these causes of discontent was a plan to seize the young king at Amboise, deprive the Guises of their power, and entrust the management of affairs to the next princes of the blood, the Prince of Condé and the King of Navarre. The king, it was urged, was only sixteen, and ought to be delivered from evil counselors. The plan was badly carried out, and entirely failed. The hastily gathered troops who hurried to Amboise were easily repelled (March, 1560). They were called Huguenots, meaning apparently a crowd hastily gathering. From this time the name passed on to the French Protestants in general.

But though this attempt failed, it showed the cardinal how great were the dangers he had to face. The French troops were needed at home, and could no longer be spared for Scotland. The  withdrawal of the French made peace necessary in Scotland, and by the treaty of Edinburgh (July 1560), it was provided that henceforth no foreigners should be employed in Scotland without the consent of the estates of the realm. Elizabeth’s policy was rewarded by a condition that Mary and Francis II should acknowledge her queen of England, lay aside their own pretensions, and no longer wear the British arms. Before the treaty was signed the queen-regent died (June 20), and with her the power of France and the Guises in Scotland was gone for the present.

The Congregation was now triumphant, and the work of Reformation was quickly carried on. A meeting of the Estates approved of the Geneva Confession of Faith, abjured the authority of the Pope, and forbade the administration, or presence at the administration of the mass, on pain of death for the third offence (August 25,1560).

Meanwhile the Guises were powerless to prevent this. In France the Huguenots demanded toleration, and their demand had been supported by Admiral Coligny. Cardinal Guise was preparing for more vigorous measures, when his plans were cut short by the death of the young king, at the age of seventeen (December 4, 1560). He was succeeded by his brother, Charles IX, a boy of ten, about whose minority there could be no doubt. The queen-mother, Catherine de' Medici, was recognized as regent, and the princes of the blood were called back again to the council. France was divided by factions, each striving for power. Catherine was a Florentine, who had been ill-treated by her husband and neglected by her son, who hated the Guises, and would shrink from nothing which would help her to get power into her own hands. Now that she had obtained a position in the State it seemed as though she were determined to avenge her former seclusion, and satisfy her pent-up greed for power. Next to her was Antony, king of Navarre, an honest, well-meaning, genial man, who strongly favored Protestantism. Against both of these were the Guises, with a strong party of zealous Catholics, wishing for an opportunity to carry out their plans.

France was on the eve of the outbreak of a war in which the passions of parties and factions were strangely mingled with religious feelings. England and Scotland had nothing more to fear from that side for some time to come. The plans of the Guises were no longer to be carried on in Scotland and England by armed interference, but by the political craft and cunning of their niece, Mary of Scotland, who had been trained under their influence.